LEGAL FRAMEWORK, HISTORY, AND GATEWAY
Argentina, Antarctica, and the Antarctic Treaty System. 2004 “Year of Argentine Antarctica”
Our Country in Antarctica
Since the beginning of the 19th century, various expeditions and sealing activities that set out from Buenos Aires can be considered the origins of Argentina’s interest in Antarctica.
Argentina’s permanent presence in Antarctica was established at the beginning of the 20th century with the meteorological and magnetic observatory on Laurie Island, part of the South Orkney Islands group. This event marked the beginning—since February 22, 1904 (the date on which Argentine Antarctica Day is commemorated)—of a long and uninterrupted effort in the region. Moreover, this base, still active to this day, is recognized as the first permanent establishment, and for 40 years it was the only one located south of the 60°S latitude. This fact is significant in itself, although it is only one link in the chain of events and activities that demonstrate the national efforts undertaken in Antarctica since then.
Accompanying various activities, the annual expeditions, and the development of scientific tasks, in 1942 Argentina delimited the Argentine Antarctic Sector—also known as Argentine Antarctica—between 5° and 74° West longitude, and from 60° South latitude to the Pole.
As is known, other States have also delimited their own Antarctic sectors; among them Chile (53° – 90° West longitude) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (20° – 80° West longitude). These last sectors partially or entirely overlap with that of Argentina.
Argentina’s active participation in the International Geophysical Year—a global scientific initiative that in 1957/58 attracted attention to Antarctic science—and the subsequent signing in 1959 of the Antarctic Treaty (in force since June 23, 1961) ensure that Argentina exhibits a triple category of interests and rights.
Argentina is a country that has asserted its sovereignty over a sector of Antarctica—a status made known intentionally before the signing of the Antarctic Treaty; it is a Party to the Antarctic Treaty System with consultative status and is also one of the twelve original signatories of the Treaty.
It maintains an effective presence and conducts permanent scientific activities at the established stations, as well as on the regular expeditions it sends to the region.
The scientific research programs, including environmental protection, not only reveal a determined will to increase and perfect knowledge related to the natural sciences but also those linked to the natural resources of Argentine Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty System
Our country understands that the full application of the System is a necessary condition for the development of both the present and the future of Antarctica. In turn, it guarantees the continuity of the prominent role that Argentina has acquired with its permanent presence and active participation in the system.
The Antarctic Treaty comprises a set of principles and objectives upon which a legal-political system was built to manage international cooperation and scientific research in the region. It is based on the practice of consensus for decision-making and is characterized by being pragmatic, decentralized, functional, and dynamic.
In its original phase, the Antarctic Treaty System specifically regulated aspects related to freedom of scientific research, non-nuclearization, and non-militarization of the area, later expanding these objectives to include the rational exploitation of living marine resources and, currently, meticulous environmental protection.
Within this context, a regime evolved that has successfully allowed countries with different levels of development and sociopolitical structures to harmoniously reconcile their interests while seeking to preserve, at the same time, the interests of humanity.
Source: Molinari, A. E. (Ed.; 2005). La Argentina en la Antártida. 100 años de presencia permanente e ininterrumpida. Buenos Aires: Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales.
THE ANTARCTIC EPIC. ITS PIONEERS.
Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery
Lieutenant Adrien de Gerlache, an officer in the Belgian Navy, conceived, organized, and led the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897-99. This expedition was the first entirely scientific expedition to visit Antarctica. Its program was very comprehensive and included hydrography, land exploration, meteorology, glaciology, the study of flora and fauna, magnetism, and photography, among others.
The Belgian Expedition was the most cosmopolitan of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Aboard the expedition ship “Bélgica” were members of five nationalities: 9 Belgians; 6 Norwegians; 2 Poles; 1 North American; and 1 Romanian.
It sailed through the Strait of Magellan, recording islands along its path. During its journey through the channels of Tierra del Fuego, numerous landfalls were made, allowing the scientists to collect samples of flora and fauna. It also ventured into the Haberton area, was hosted by Bridges, and even reached the Lighthouse of Isla de los Estados.
During its passage through Ushuaia in December 1897, the Argentine Government offered Gerlache free access to as much coal as needed from the coal station.
From January 23 to February 12, 1898, the expedition explored unknown regions and recorded, alongside a 170 km-long strait, many islands, capes, bays, channels, mountains, and lands—a zone we now know as the Gerlache Strait.
Hernán Pujato
Hernán Pujato, the Great Explorer, born in Diamante, Entre Ríos in 1904, is the same year in which Argentina began its continuous, effective, and prominent presence in Antarctica.
Recognized as “The Father of Antarctic Fatherland,” he forged Argentine history in continental Antarctica. In 1949, while serving as a military attaché at the Argentine embassy in Bolivia, General Hernán Pujato presented his Antarctic plan to then-President Juan Domingo Perón. That plan consisted of: an effective Army presence on-site to promote Antarctic awareness; the creation of an organization dedicated specifically to scientific research; the founding of a settlement with families; the acquisition of an icebreaker; and, finally, reaching the South Pole.
In the 1950s, the President of the Nation decisively supported Colonel Hernán Pujato’s strategic project by penetrating the white continent, surveying its topography all the way to the Pole, establishing bases, refuges, and a permanent family population (without annual replacements) a few years later at what is now Base Esperanza.
Bases San Martín, Esperanza, and Belgrano were established; Argentina acquired its first icebreaker for the Navy, ARA “General San Martín”; the Argentine Antarctic Institute was created; and in 1965, the Argentine Army reached the South Pole.
He was recognized in his lifetime as “Illustrious Citizen of Diamante,” was named Honorary Commander of the Antarctic Command of the Army, and was honored by the Honorable Chamber of Deputies on August 14, 1991.
On September 7, 2003, he passed away at Campo de Mayo Military Hospital at the age of 99. His ashes were, by his express wish, taken to Base San Martín in 2004, marking 100 years of Argentine presence in Antarctica. From there, his spirit continues to inspire all those dedicated to Antarctic endeavors.
José María Sobral
José María Sobral, an Argentine explorer, military officer, and geologist, joined the Argentine Navy and participated in the maiden voyage of the frigate Sarmiento. He was the first Argentine to winter in the Antarctic continent.
At the end of 1901, an expedition was organized in Sweden with private donations, composed of scientific navigators, with the mission of exploring the unknown Antarctic continent by wintering there to conduct studies and measurements. It was led by the Swedish geologist Otto Nordenskjöld, and the ship that carried out the expedition was the sailing vessel Antarctic, commanded by Carl Anton Larsen.
At the request of Lieutenant Ballvé, Nordenskjöld invited the Argentine government to join the expedition by sending a representative. The choice fell on Second Lieutenant José María Sobral, 21 years old, who thus became the first Argentine to arrive in Antarctica in an official capacity representing the national state, wintering there for two consecutive years during which he carried out his technical scientific duties through observations in meteorology, geodesy, and geomagnetism.
In 1904 he requested discharge from the Navy with the rank of Ensign, and in 1905 he traveled to Sweden to study geology, obtaining a doctorate from Uppsala University.
He returned to Argentina in 1914 and was appointed Director of Hydrology, a position he held until 1930. President Agustín P. Justo later named him Consul General in Norway. In 1930, he was declared by the Hispanic Society of New York as the greatest geographer in the Southern Hemisphere.
Until his death in 1961, he never forgot Antarctica, continuing his research and always advocating for its peaceful occupation, both of the Antarctic continent and the subantarctic archipelagos.
Julián Irízar Echeverría
Vice Admiral of the Argentine Navy, a key figure in its modernization, commander of the Navy’s First Division, and president of the Naval Center. His most remembered action was the rescue of the expedition led by Swedish scientist Otto Nordenskjöld, whose ship had been wrecked in Antarctica in 1903.
Julián Irízar entered the Naval School on March 11, 1884. He was part of the crew of the torpedo boat Rosales around 1892 and was one of the few survivors when it sank.
In 1898, he was part of the commission assigned to oversee the construction of the frigate ARA Presidente Sarmiento in England. When, in 1899, the ship embarked on its first circumnavigation voyage, he served as its defeat officer. A specialist in explosives, he later became a naval attaché in the diplomatic missions in Great Britain and Germany, and was in charge of procurement for the squadron regarding ammunition and artillery supplies.
The Rescue of the Nordenskjöld Expedition
Concerned about the disappearance of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition, the Argentine government decided to send the corvette Uruguay, commanded by Irízar, on a rescue mission. Built in England in 1874, the corvette was completely refitted to perform the task. Its ice resistance was improved and its capacity to store water, provisions, and coal was increased. The crew consisted of 8 officers, including Commander Irízar, and 19 enlisted men. All were carefully selected, as the voyage required not only naval experience but also the endurance for extremely cold climates and the fortitude to venture into inhospitable regions.
The ship sailed from Buenos Aires heading south on October 8, 1903. Twelve days later, it reached the city of Ushuaia. There it waited until November 1 for two additional rescue expeditions sent by Sweden and France. With no further information and following its instructions, the Uruguay departed from Ushuaia, and a few days later it was sailing close to Paulet Island, unaware that the survivors of the Antarctic had been there. The passage to Snow Hill was rapid and uneventful. On November 8, the encounter with the scientific expedition took place, much to their surprise as they were expecting the Antarctic. The following day, Captain Larsen and six crew members from the Antarctic arrived at the camp.
Shortly thereafter, the Uruguay turned towards Paulet Island, picked up the castaways, and began the return journey.
On the return voyage starting November 12, the Uruguay encountered all the hardships of the sea that had been avoided on the outbound trip. The wind blew constantly, and on the 13th and 14th it faced a gale that devastated much of the deck installations and caused rolling of up to 40 degrees, putting the ship in serious danger. A loud noise preceded the fall of the main mast and the ratchet, which had to be chopped off and thrown into the sea.
On November 22, they arrived at Santa Cruz, from where they sent a telegram with the good news.
The corvette Uruguay was withdrawn from active service in 1926. That same year, Irízar was promoted to Vice Admiral. From April 16, 1931, for two years he presided over the Naval Center. He retired on January 8, 1932, and passed away four years later.
Mario Luis Olezza
Vice Commodore Olezza is the most prestigious Antarctic figure in the Argentine Air Force, a true gentleman of the skies, defender of Argentine Antarctic airspace, and a pioneer and mastermind of the transpolar flight.
On November 3, 1965, after a failed attempt in 1962, the Argentine Air Force reached the South Pole. His transpolar expedition, planned and led by Olezza, landed at the South Pole with two DHC-2 Beaver single-engine aircraft and one C-47 twin-engine. This propeller aircraft also had auxiliary takeoff rockets and an attached turbine, making it the only airplane in the world with three types of propulsion. After continuing this aircraft to McMurdo Base, it reunited with the Beavers at the South Pole, and together they began the return journey.
Today, one of the Beavers and the C-47 are exhibited at the Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica in Morón.
Gustavo Giró Tapper
First Lieutenant Gustavo Giró Tapper, who, in addition to serving as head of several Antarctic bases, distinguished himself as an excellent explorer with extensive technical knowledge in various polar subjects and possessed a great general culture.
At only 31 years old, he achieved one of his greatest successes as an explorer. He organized, led, and carried out the most important overland expedition ever made in Antarctica, with the exception of those that reached the South Pole: connecting by land Base Esperanza, located at the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, with Base San Martín, which is located below the Antarctic Circle, during the harsh winter of 1962.
The expedition was carried out by a group of eight men from Base Esperanza, who, during the winter of 1962, traversed the northeastern extreme of the Antarctic Peninsula and the Larsen Ice Barrier, and then crossed the peninsula using dog sleds and snow vehicles, thus connecting the two bases in a round-trip journey.
This great expedition took place between June 14 and October 25, covering a total distance of 2,000 kilometers.
The objective of the expedition was to gain experience in the severe Antarctic winter—during the coldest months and with fewer daylight hours—carry out scientific tasks along the route, prepare part of the personnel qualified and preselected to join the overland expedition to the South Pole, called Operation 90 (in planning), and also to experiment with various effects and means under extreme climatic conditions, as well as in difficult terrain.
Reaching the Geographic South Pole by land was the second major expedition in which Mr. Gustavo Giró participated, this time as Second Expedition Chief and Head of Scientific Tasks related to meteorology, glaciology, and gravimetry. He also took part, along with other colleagues, in the photo-cinematographic documentation of the expedition’s activities.
The First Argentine Overland Expedition to the South Pole, called Operation 90, led by Colonel Jorge Leal, began its march from Base Belgrano toward the South Pole on October 26, 1965. The Argentine expedition, composed of eight men, used only mechanical means for the journey this time. Six large snow tractors, called Snow-Cats, were employed, each towing a sled loaded with the necessary materials for the expedition, including the vital fuel for the tractors. During the long journey, they faced all kinds of difficulties and setbacks, dangerous crevasses, and major obstacles such as “sastruguis” (deep grooves carved by the wind in the hard ice surface that extended over the vast, barren ice field), which, combined with extremely harsh weather conditions, often made the journey extremely slow, increasing fuel consumption beyond expectations; thus endangering not only the success of the expedition but also the survival of the explorers.
After overcoming the numerous obstacles encountered along the way and progressing kilometer by kilometer, the explorers reached their objective: the South Pole at 10:15 on December 10, 1965, aboard three Snow-Cat vehicles named Salta, Córdoba, and Venado Tuerto.
The group of explorers returned to Base Belgrano on December 31, 1965, after covering 2,900 km in 66 days.
From Base Belgrano, the “9 Poles” were transported by the icebreaker ARA General San Martín, arriving in Ushuaia on February 5, 1966, and then were flown to Buenos Aires on February 8 on an Argentine Air Force plane, being triumphantly received around 18:00 at Aeroparque by a public eager to see their “polar heroes.” They were then transported in Army jeeps, accompanied by Federal Police motorcycles as escorts, to the Government House, where they were received by the President of the Nation, Arturo Illia, and national authorities.
The First Argentine Overland Expedition to the South Pole in 1965 had the honor of being the eighth expedition in the world to reach 90°S, and it was also the first to do so from the Weddell Sea.
It is noteworthy that Mr. Gustavo Giró, during his activities as an Antarctic explorer, managed to cover more than 18,000 kilometers overland in the southern continent, using dog sleds and Snow-Cat tractors.
Hugo Acuña
On February 22, 1904, the Argentine Republic took possession of the Meteorological Observatory on the South Orkney Islands, thus establishing Argentina’s permanent presence in Antarctica. Since then, our country’s scientific activity on the white continent has been continuous. For this reason, that date is celebrated as Argentine Antarctica Day. Among the members of that first group was the young volunteer Hugo Acuña, a postal runner whose diary is one of the earliest works of Argentine Antarctic literature. The original observatory, which consisted of a stone house known as Casa Omond, had been installed by the Scottish Antarctic Expedition in 1903, led by William Speirs Bruce, who donated the observatory to the Argentine State at the end of 1903 and completed the transfer on February 22. By Executive Decree of January 2, 1904, the observatory passed into Argentine hands, and a new one was established with personnel from the Ministry of Agriculture. The following year, Argentina built a modern observatory there, which became its first Antarctic installation and today constitutes the base museum, known as Casa Moneta.
USHUAIA, GATEWAY TO ANTARCTIC MARITIME TOURISM
Understanding Some Aspects of Tourism in Our City
The Beginnings…
Ushuaia, located on the north bank of the Beagle Channel, has always been connected to the sea. Since 1922, visitors began arriving onboard cruises operated by different companies and nationalities, aiming to explore the Fuegian Channels. A distinct motivation emerged from 1958: to begin their journey to Antarctica in Ushuaia.
Ushuaia is the closest gateway to the Antarctic Peninsula, only 1,000 km away.
Antarctic tourism is a commercial activity that involves the transportation of people to the area governed by the Antarctic Treaty, south of 60°S, for leisure purposes, with special interest in wildlife, pristine landscapes, and historical and scientific significance. This type of tourism requires support from gateway cities that facilitate tourist arrivals and the provisioning of ships. Ushuaia is the most active maritime gateway to the Antarctic continent since the early 1990s.
Our country played a very important role in organizing the first trips to Antarctica.
Maritime tourism to Antarctica began in 1958 with an initiative by the Argentine government, which organized two trips with the vessel ARA Les Eclaireurs. The first trip departed from Ushuaia on January 16, 1958, with 98 passengers, visiting five Argentine scientific stations. The visitors placed a commemorative plaque at Destacamento Decepción as it was the first place in Antarctica where they landed. The following year, a trip was organized with the vessel MN Yapeyú, carrying 263 passengers. These pioneering trips (along with a trip by the Chilean vessel Navarino, operating from Punta Arenas) preceded the signing of the Antarctic Treaty (1959) and demonstrated both the technical feasibility of such voyages and the tourists’ interest in traveling to these remote regions, as well as the possibility of having logistical support.
The 1960s were characterized by the continuity of trips organized by Argentina’s public bodies and the beginning of Antarctic tourism from the private sector, through the company led by Lars Eric Lindblad, who chartered vessels from Argentina and later from various countries, operating itineraries departing from diverse locations such as Buenos Aires and Ushuaia in Argentina, Punta Arenas in Chile, and Lyttelton in New Zealand.
With the participation of the private sector in organizing Antarctic tourist activities, the first Recommendation concerning tourism was approved at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting in 1966.
The ‘Tourism Boom’ of the 1970s
In 1970, trips began aboard the vessel Lindblad Explorer, designed especially to operate in polar waters. The concept of expedition cruises was developed, referring to the organization of journeys to remote destinations lacking support infrastructure, where the vessel provides both access and the means for passengers to remain in the destination area, meeting all their needs.
Vessels carrying more than 500 passengers sailed toward Antarctica, including those from Línea C and also from the company Ybarra with two vessels, Cabo San Vicente and Cabo San Roque, which usually visited the Malvinas Islands, the Fuegian Channels, and Ushuaia.
Argentina also used larger vessels for its trips, even chartering a ship from a Greek company called Regina Prima, with which it organized 13 trips over two seasons.
The tourism boom of the 1970s was characterized by continuous activity throughout all seasons, the use of larger vessels, and an increase in both trips and visitors; a total of 63 trips were made, transporting 16,824 passengers.
The Stagnation in the 1980s
In the 1980s, Antarctic maritime tourism decreased significantly. For the first time, a private company in our country took the initiative and organized some trips with the vessel ARA Buen Suceso. This was the company Antartur, based in Ushuaia, founded by Mr. Gustavo Giró Tapper, an Antarctic expert due to his role as Base Chief and Second Chief of the First Argentine Overland Expedition to the South Pole. Due to the South Atlantic Conflict, no landfalls were recorded at Ushuaia’s port in the following seasons.
Years later, Antartur partially chartered the capacity of the polar vessel ARA Bahía Paraíso to carry out a very particular trip that departed from Ushuaia on February 7, 1986; special guests included relatives of the head of the 1901 Swedish Expedition (Nordenskjöld), of the captain of the vessel Antarctic (Larsen), and of the Argentine member of the expedition (Ensign Sobral), who paid tribute on Cerro Nevado Island. In the following seasons, several trips took place until ARA Bahía Paraíso ran aground and sank in the Bismarck Strait in January 1989. Foreign vessels Lindblad Explorer and Society Explorer carried out several trips; in this way, a total of 33 trips were completed, transporting 3,017 tourists throughout the decade. (For details on these early decades of Antarctic tourism, see Figure 1.)
The Consolidation of Antarctic Tourism in the 1990s
In the 1990s, there was exceptional growth in both the number of vessels and the number of trips and passengers, mainly driven by foreign private initiatives. This growth was motivated by exogenous factors (greater availability of vessels and specialized human resources in polar navigation) and endogenous factors (expansion of the commercial pier, a new international airport, the creation of the Antarctic Office, etc.) that facilitated the operations of Antarctic tour operators. At the same time, local capacity for providing tourist services increased, and maritime services became more specialized. In 1991, the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO) was created, whose objectives include promoting responsible tourism in Antarctica. In summary, 585 trips were made, transporting 55,013 visitors.
During the 1999-2000 season, numerous special programs were developed in celebration of the “millennium’s end” in a unique destination associated with the idea of “the end of the world.”
Early 21st Century Developments in Antarctic Maritime Tourism
In the 21st century, Argentina resumed its participation in Antarctic maritime tourism. The company Antarpply Expeditions, based in our city, began operating with the vessel Ushuaia in the 2002/2003 season, making up to 15 trips per season. Also, from 2005 to 2012, the vessel Antarctic Dream, owned by a Chilean company, operated a total of 88 trips.
Larger vessels increasingly include Antarctica in their itineraries; in 2007, the first trip of a vessel carrying more than 3,000 passengers took place with the Golden Princess.
The 2007/2008 season registered the highest traffic through Ushuaia’s port, with 44,605 passengers, while the following season was the longest, lasting 179 days.
At the 2009 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Measure 15 was adopted, establishing that vessels with more than 500 passengers cannot make landings in the Treaty Area, while smaller vessels may disembark up to 100 passengers at a time, with one guide for every 20 passengers.
During the first decade of the 21st century, 1,741 trips were made, transporting 244,582 tourists.
From the amendment to Annex I of the MARPOL Convention (IMO), which prohibits the use and/or transport of heavy fuel oil south of 60°S (in effect since 2011), the participation of large vessels decreased markedly, and the number of passengers declined. However, this has been recovering in recent seasons with an increase in vessels carrying between 200 and 400 passengers, some of them new. Additionally, itineraries have diversified and an air-cruise modality has been established from Punta Arenas, where some trips embark or disembark passengers in Ushuaia. Regarding the origin of the passengers, today the United States occupies first place, followed by China, then Australia, the United Kingdom, and Germany. During the second decade of the 21st century (seasons 2009/2010 to 2018/2019), 2,174 trips were made, carrying 374,869 visitors. The recent decades of Antarctic tourism are summarized in Figure 2.
Currently, 90% of all Antarctic visitors use Ushuaia as the gateway, either for both legs of the journey or at least for embarking or disembarking.
But... what about the future?
New expectations are emerging for the future of Antarctic tourism, where a significant growth in the number of visitors is anticipated with the incorporation of new vessels as part of a major modernization of the fleets.
Source: Jensen, M. and Vereda, M. (2020). Material for the dissemination of Ushuaia as the gateway to Antarctic tourism. PIDUNTDF A 2/2018, UNTDF, Ushuaia.
LOGISTICS
The city boasts an extensive network of support services for the development of activity.
For the vessels: potable water; waste removal; provision of all necessary supplies in all areas.
For the passengers: hotel services, gastronomy, travel agencies, clothing rental, tourist information, luggage storage, banks, currency exchange houses, ATMs, and a vast network of shops where tourists can purchase any products they desire. 
Ushuaia welcoming antarctic tourism cruises. PH: Marisol Vereda
Moment of contemplation of visitors aboard a ship. Photo: Marisol Vereda
Authors
Marie Jensen, IDEI, UNTDFMarisol Vereda, IDEI, UNTDF
Outreach material about Ushuaia as the gateway to Antarctic tourism. 2020. PIDUNTDF A 2/2018, UNTDF, Ushuaia.